Tuesday, August 25, 2020
Free Essays on Why The Concept Of Heroes Survives The Centuries
could portray the divine beings and saints of Greek and Roman folklore. They have mind boggling quality, they have ponies that fly, or are godlike. ââ¬Å"He was insightful, he saw puzzles, and knew mystery things, . . .â⬠is a depiction of Gilgamesh. (Sandars 12) According to Sandars ââ¬Å" . . . the divine beings gave [Gilgamesh] an ideal body . . . invested him with excellence . . . supply... Free Essays on Why The Concept Of Heroes Survives The Centuries Free Essays on Why The Concept Of Heroes Survives The Centuries WHY THE CONCEPT OF HEROES SURVIVES THE CENTURIES For a considerable length of time, society and writing have adored and worshiped phenomenal people called ââ¬Ëheroes.ââ¬â¢ The word legend infers a few pictures: quality, dauntlessness, assurance. Legends have been a piece of human societies for a large number of years. Gilgamesh is perceived as the first superhuman, trailed by numerous others including Hercules and Odysseus, Spiderman and Rambo, George Patton and Todd Beamer. Saints in ââ¬Å"The Iliadâ⬠by Homer, for example, Agamemnon, Achilles, and Hector, all display fearlessness, quality, and persistence. Our history books are loaded up with records of chivalrous activities. Every day broadcasts report tales about saints in varying backgrounds. Understudies frequently question why study old works of writing. One explanation is that perusers of old writing are blessed to receive the absolute most noteworthy hero stories at any point composed. Makes the tales much additionally interesting that the most suffering epic, ââ¬Å"Gilgamesh,â⬠is about 4,800 years of age. (Lawall, ââ¬Å"Gilgameshâ⬠10). Regardless of which time, our saints share these and other certain attributes for all intents and purpose. The most unexplained quality is that of being a ââ¬Å"common personâ⬠or ââ¬Å"regular guy.â⬠These characteristics clarify why the idea of social saints endures the hundreds of years. Demonstrating that history rehashes itself, some of todayââ¬â¢s superheroes pull propensities from the incredible legends of folklore. For instance, think about Superman. He is tall and attractive. He is keen. He can likewise fly, is essentially powerful, and is the most grounded of men. These words could depict the divine beings and saints of Greek and Roman folklore. They have amazing quality, they have ponies that fly, or are undying. ââ¬Å"He was savvy, he saw puzzles, and knew mystery things, . . .â⬠is a portrayal of Gilgamesh. (Sandars 12) According to Sandars ââ¬Å" . . . the divine beings gave [Gilgamesh] an ideal body . . . enriched him with magnificence . . . bless...
Saturday, August 22, 2020
How Was the Universe Created?
How Was the Universe Created? The three things above are great motivation behind why we put stock in this hypothesis. All the point above demonstrates the chance of the theory of how things came to be and they all meet up so as to demonstrate it. Contentions against the theory of how things came to be Numerous individuals still dont have faith in the Big Bang hypothesis since they think it isn't right. This could be a direct result of a portion of the issues with the hypothesis itself. Numerous individuals pose a wide range of inquiries and find numerous defects in the theory of the universe's origin. A great many people acknowledge that the universe never had a start as that is the main conceivable arrangement and the most sensible explanation we know. Individuals additionally accept that the universe never had a start so it will never end and will continue extending everlastingly vastly. The most concerning issue with the hypothesis is that there isnt such solid evidence for what began the enormous detonation. As we as a whole know, to begin something or something to begin there must be something to trigger that start and to the extent we know the huge explosion didnt have a beginning. Individuals dont discover the hypothesis persuading on the grounds that they accept that such an occasion could have occurred without something activating it. With respect to certain individuals likewise accept that the beginning could have been activated by God. Furthermore, God made the entire universe and it is God who began enormous detonation. This is conceivable however not certain and hence we require proof and confirmation. Nobody is sure that God exist and numerous inquiries can be posed in the presence of God. This inquiry can't be replied; it is same as asking how was the universe made. To know the genuine truth we would need to return to time. Fred Hoyle developed a model to show that the universe was interminably old and has stayed consistent. This is known as the Steady State hypothesis. This hypothesis was considerably more worthy among the strict gatherings as was less unclear. Anyway it was likewise acknowledged by the science side since it included the extension of the universe. {13} this hypothesis appears to take a shot at both logical and the strict sides. Fred Hoyle accepted that, if the universe is growing there must be something being made up in the spaces between systems. In down to earth I think this is exceptionally clear and a basic clarification as it is same as the theory of how things came to be yet has an alternate adjustment for the extension. He presumed that just a single hydrogen molecule is sufficient in a year to keep the development running. Analysis This hypothesis can be handily tried by utilizing an inflatable. On the off chance that we put red dabs on an inflatable and, at that point blow it, we will see that the red spots are growing. In the event that we center ourselves from one red speck we will see that the further dabs are moving quicker in light of the fact that the spaces between the spots are expanding. This expansion of the hole between the dabs is corresponding to the filling of universe and the reason for the development. Other Evidence against the Big Bang hypothesis was that a portion of the worlds close to our own systems were a lot more youthful and a few cosmic systems have been found to be more established than the universe. {13} - unmistakably this perception is contending against the theory of how things came to be and demonstrates its contention by giving us genuine information. This source is extremely solid and has really altered my perspective since it unmistakably discloses to us that the Big Bang hypothesis may very well be an incorrect method to portray the roots of our universe. This shows that it is so natural to change people groups mind on the theory of the universe's origin if the contention utilizes great logical models and demonstrates completely. The proof above shows us a defect in the theory of prehistoric cosmic detonation. Furthermore, the following proof against the hypothesis is the consistent state hypothesis. The consistent state hypothesis expresses that the universe didn't have a beginning yet consistently been available. This again is a supposition; it likewise says the universe never had a beginning so subsequently it wouldnt have an end. The consistent state hypothesis isn't revealing to us that the universe is static. It takes Hubbles thought of venture into account. I think this hypothesis is as solid as the huge explosion since it considers different realities. It is simpler for researcher to have faith in this since it doesn't have a strange beginning; like the à ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã¥big bang㠢â⠬â hypothesis does. The creationism hypothesis is it logical? Everybody has various convictions and everybody thinks in an unexpected way. A few people have had confidence in the creation story and the possibility of God. They state that Almighty God made the entire universe remembering the life for earth. I guess you can't contend with them until you give some exceptionally solid strong proof. The hypothesis expresses that God made the sky and the earth. Anyway life was absent and the earth was vacant and indistinct. In spite of the fact that this isn't logical and doesn't have adequate proof, we can't dismiss it on the grounds that there are individuals who have confidence in this simply like individuals who put stock in the Big Bang hypothesis. http://www.kiva.net/~kls/page4.html {9} The contradiction is generally through the strict gatherings as they trust God made the universe. The Bible Genesis has given me contentions against the hypothesis of enormous detonation as it expresses the procedure where God made the universe. It expresses that god made life on earth including all the seasons, the seas, the sun, the moon, and so on {12} this site furnishes me with the Bible citations. It shows how the universe was made in an alternate perspective and as that God made the universe. This story is fundamentally a conviction and confidence of strict people groups; in spite of the fact that it is dubious they despite everything put stock in it and think it is superior to enormous detonation. This hypothesis is interesting on the grounds that with respect to the absence of steady proof it is the second most well known hypothesis after the theory of how things came to be. Anyway it doesn't have any evidence for it convictions. In spite of the fact that individuals despite everything have confidence in it and it is adequate to contend with a much clarified hypothesis, for example, the theory of the universe's origin. This citation is from the holy book, the strict book of Christians. It states à ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã
God made the earth. In the initial expressions of the Bible, God is unequivocally proclaimed to be the maker of the earth (Gen. 1: 1, 2). The reality God made the earth is over and over instructed all through the Bible.㠢â⠬â {12} This has been taken from the holy book. This source is dependable in a religion way. Be that as it may, it doesnt have the science behind it to back its thoughts. In any case, this source is dependable in light of the fact that it has been known for a long time and numerous individuals have confidence in it. The holy book expresses that God took 7 days to make the earth and the universe. Considering the huge populace of Christians now days I figure their contentions could be successful and can likewise influence others. à ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã
In Christian religious philosophy, an area of unique disclosure, Gods calling (John 6:44, 6:65) empowers individuals to comprehend Gods plan and truth. Just the individuals who experience God and have their psyches powerfully opened by God can comprehend reality in these issues. This justification limits what common researchers can realize and comprehend. Except if a researcher gets such a calling the researcher will be continually learning and always unable to go to the information on the truth㠢â⠬â {12}. This is an exceptionally solid proclamation and it clarifies what Christians have faith in and contends against the researcher and others who have convictions in the theory of how things came to be. I think this site is genuinely against any science sees in light of the fact that from the statement you can see that it is testing. Fundamentally it expresses that an individual can't know the genuine truth and just individuals who get getting from God will disco ver reality. It additionally recommends that God has given us information anyway it is smarter to confine our insight and don't remain against God as he is the main maker. William Paleys contention Stretching the issue from the above clarification, this contention can be utilized for instance and be utilized as proof. Utilizing an idea of a watch Paley said that the world is all around planned simply like a pocket watch. Everything which makes the watch work should be working appropriately and everything in a watch is planned so splendidly. Consequently on the off chance that you expel something from inside the watch, it won't work. This applies same with the universe; on the off chance that we evacuate the principal things, for example, gravity, it won't work. Subsequently, the pocket watch and the universe are equal and the two of them had a maker. Subsequently, the universe must have a maker, which is God. Hinduism There are numerous religions on the planet and they all have various convictions. All the religions are hostile to science as they all have confidence in god. For instance Hinduism. Hindus accept that god made the entire universe. Their hypothesis à ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã
Before time started there was no paradise, no earth and no space between. Out of nowhere, from the profundities a murmuring sound started to tremble, Om. It developed and spread, filling the vacancy and pulsating with vitality. The night had finished. Vishnu got up. Vishnus worker, Brahma anticipated the Lords order. Vishnu addressed his worker: It is a great opportunity to start. Brahma bowed. Vishnu instructed: Create the world.㠢â⠬â The world was before long bristling with life and the air was loaded up with the hints of Brahmas creation. {14} this demonstrates there isn't just a single religion that can't help contradicting the theory of the universe's origin. Anyway this is just a fantasy, even the Hindus dont ha ve confirmation for this. They can't bolster their hypothesis with proof. There are more than 270 unique religions in this world. What's more, they all have various contentions and distinctive folklore. In the wake of taking a gander at these religions I can likewise say that its not just the religions that have fantasies, even the researcher have legends The Big Bang Theory. Issues with the hypothesis à ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã
Static universe models fit observational information better than growing universe models.㠢â⠬â Static universe models coordinate most perceptions with no flexible cutoff points. The Big Bang can coordinate every one of the basic perceptions, however just with customizable cutoff points. The microwave foundation bodes well as the limiti
Monday, August 10, 2020
Comprehensive Guide on Data Mining (and Data Mining Techniques)
Comprehensive Guide on Data Mining (and Data Mining Techniques) © Shutterstock.com | ScandinavianStockJust hearing the phrase âdata miningâ is enough to make your average aspiring entrepreneur or new businessman cower in fear or, at least, approach the subject warily. It sounds like something too technical and too complex, even for his analytical mind, to understand.Out of nowhere, thoughts of having to learn about highly technical subjects related to data haunts many people. Many cave in and just opt to find other people to take care of that aspect for them. Worse, in other cases, they pay little attention to it, thinking they can get away with not having anything to do with data mining in their business.Once they try to understand what data mining really is, they will realize that it is something that cannot be ignored or overlooked, since it is part and parcel of the management of a business or organization.Businesses cannot do away with implementing or applying various business intelligence methodologies, applications and technologies in order to gather and analyze data providing relevant information about the market, the industry, or the operations of the business. It just so happens that data mining is one of the most important aspects of business intelligence.WHAT IS DATA MINING?Forget about any highly technical definition you may associate with data mining and let us look at it for the relatively simple concept that it truly is. Data mining is basically the process of subjecting available data to analysis by looking at it from different perspectives, to convert it into information that will be useful in the management of a business and its operations.A simple way to describe data mining is that it is a process that aims to make sense of data by looking for patterns and relationships, so that it can be used in making business decisions.For the longest time, many people have associated data mining with the image of a set of high-end computers utilizing equally high-end software and technology to obtain data and p rocess them. This isnât entirely wrong, because technology is definitely a huge and integral part of data mining. However, data mining is actually a broader concept, not just limited to the use of technology and similar tools.Perhaps one of the biggest reasons why many are intimidated by the very mention and idea of data mining is the fact that it involves more than one or two disciplines. When we talk of data mining, we are talking about database management and maintenance, which automatically means the involvement or use of database software and technologies. Thus, it also often entails machine learning and heavy reliance on information science and technology.Further, the analysis of data, especially of the numerical kind, is bound to make use of statistics, which is another area that some people find complicated. This will also demand a lot in terms of visualization.In short, being involved in data mining implies dipping oneâs fingers and toes in more than a few rivers, so to speak, since it entails the use or application of multiple disciplines. This is what often makes data mining a challenge in the eyes of most people.We can gain a deeper understanding of what data mining is by talking about its five major elements.Extraction, transformation and uploading of the data to a data warehouse system.Data storage and management in a database system.Data access to analysts and other users.Data analysis using various software, tools and technologies.Data presentation in a useful and comprehensible format.IMPORTANCE OF DATA MININGBusinesses, organizations and industries share the same problems when it comes to data. Either they arenât able the find the data that they require or, even if they know where to find it, they have difficulty actually getting their hands on it. In other cases, they may have access to the data, but they cannot understand it. Worse, the data may be readily available to them, and they may be able to have comprehension of it.However, fo r some reason or another, they find that they are unable to use the data.This is where data mining comes in.The main reason why data mining is very important is to facilitate the conversion of raw data into information that, in turn, will be converted into knowledge applicable for decision-making processes of businesses.Data mining has become increasingly important, especially in recent years, when nearly all industries and sectors all over the world are facing problems on data explosion. All of a sudden, there is simply too much data, and this rapid rise in the amount of data demands a corresponding increase in the amount of information and knowledge. Thus, there is a need to quickly, efficiently and effectively process all that data into usable information, and data mining offers the solution. In fact, you could say that data mining is the solution.You will find data mining to be most often used or applied in organizations or businesses that maintain fairly large to massive databa ses. The sheer size of their databases and the amount of information contained within them require more than a small measure of organization and analysis, which is where data mining comes in. Through data mining, users are able to look at data from multiple perspectives in their analysis. It will also make it easier to categorize the information processed and identify relevant patterns, relationships or correlations among the various fields the data or information belong to.Therefore, we can deduce that data mining involves tasks of a descriptive and predictive nature. Descriptive, because it involves the identification of patterns, relationships and correlations within large amounts of data, and predictive, because its application utilizes variables that are used to predict their future or unknown values. APPLICATIONS OF DATA MININGThe application of data mining is apparent across sectors and industries.Retail and ServiceThe sale of consumer goods and services in the retail and ser vice industries results in the collection of large amounts of data. The primary purpose of using data mining in these industries is to improve the firmâs customer relationship management, its supply chain management and procurement processes, its financial management, and also its core operations (which is sales).The most common areas where data mining becomes highly effective among retail and service provider companies include:Promotion Effectiveness Analysis, where the company will gather and analyze data on past successful (and unsuccessful or moderately successful) campaigns or promotions, and the costs and benefits that the campaigns provided to the company. This will give the firm an insight on what elements will increase the chances of a campaign or promotion being successful.Customer Segmentation Analysis, where the firm will take a look at the responses of the customers â" classified in appropriate segments â" to shifts or any changes in demographics or some other segme ntation basis.Product Pricing, where data mining will play a vital role in the firmâs product pricing policies and price models.Inventory Control, where data mining is used in monitoring and analyzing the movements in inventory levels with respect safety stock and lot size. Lead time analysis also greatly relies on data mining.Budgetary Analysis, where companies will need to compare actual expenditures to the budgeted expenses. Incidentally, knowledge obtained through data mining will be used in budgeting for subsequent periods.Profitability Analysis, where data mining is used to compare and evaluate the profitability of the different branches, stores, or any appropriate business unit of the company. This will enable management to identify the most profitable areas of the business, and decide accordingly.ManufacturingEssentially, the areas where data mining is applied in manufacturing companies are similar to those in retail and service companies. However, manufacturing businesses also use data mining for its quality improvement (QI) initiatives, where data obtained through quality improvement programs such as Six Sigma and Kaizen, to name a few, are analyzed in order to solve any issues or problems that the company may be having with regards to product quality.Finance and InsuranceBanks, insurance companies, and other financial institutions and organizations are also actively using data mining in its business intelligence initiatives. Risk Management is generally the area where data mining is most utilized. This time, data mining is used to recognize and subsequently reduce credit and market risks that financial institutions are almost always faced with. Other risks assessed with the help of data mining include liquidity risk and operational risk.For example, banks and credit card companies use data mining for credit analysis of customers. Insurance companies are mostly concerned with gaining knowledge through claims and fraud analysis.Telecommunication and UtilitiesOrganizations engaged in providing utilities services are also recipients of the benefits of data mining. For example, telecommunication companies are most likely to conduct call record analysis. Electric and water companies also perform power usage or consumption analysis through data mining.The global popularity of cellular phones in almost all transactions has made it a playground for many hackers and security threats. This spurred Coral Systems, a Colorado-based company, to create FraudBuster, which is described to be able to âtrackâ down the types of fraud through data mining, specifically through analysis of cellular phone usage patterns in relation to fraud.TransportIn the transport industry, it is mainly all about logistics, which is why that is the area where data mining is most applied. Thus, logistics management benefits greatly from data mining. State or government transport agencies are also using data mining for its various projects, such as road construc tion and rehabilitation, traffic control, and the like.PropertyThe real estate industry heavily relies on information gleaned from property valuations which, in turn, resulted from the application of data mining. The focus is not entirely on the bottomline or the sales. Instead, data on property valuation trends over the years, as well as comparison on appraisals, are tackled.Healthcare and Medical IndustryEvery day, researches, studies and experiments are conducted in the healthcare and medical industry, which implies that there are tons of data being generated every single day. Data mining is often an integral part of those researches and studies.STEPS IN DATA MININGData mining is a process, which means that anyone using it should go through a series of iterative steps or phases. The number of steps vary, with some packing the whole process within 5 steps. The one below involves 8 steps, primarily because we have broken down the phases into smaller parts. For example, steps #2 th rough #5 are lumped by other sources as a single step, which they call âData Pre-processingâ.For purposes of this discussion, however, let us take each step one at a time.Step #1: Defining the ProblemBefore you can get started on anything, you have to define the objectives of the data mining process you are about to embark on. What do you hope to accomplish with the data mining process? What problems do you want to address? What will the organization or business ultimately obtain from it as benefit?Step #2: Data IntegrationIt starts with the data, or the raw tidbit about an item, event, transaction or activity.The goal is to provide the users (those who are performing data mining) a unified view of the data, regardless of whether they are from single or multiple sources.This step involves:Identification of all possible sources of data. Chances are high that the initial list of sources will be quite long and heterogeneous. Integrating these data sources will save you a lot of tim e and resources later on in the process.Collection of data. Data are gathered from the sources previously identified and integrated. Usually, data obtained from multiple sources are merged.Data integration aims to lower the potential number and frequency of data redundancy and duplications in the data set and, consequently, improve the efficiency (speed) and effectiveness (accuracy) of the data mining process.Step #3: Data SelectionAfter the first step, it is highly probable that you will be faced with a mountain of data, a large chunk of which are not really relevant or even useful for data mining purposes. You have to weed out those that you wonât need, so you can focus on the data that will be of actual use later on.Create a target data set. The target data set establishes the parameters of the data that you will need or require for data mining.Select the data. From all the data gathered, identify those that fall within the data set you just targeted. Those are the data you wil l subject to pre-processing.Step #4: Data CleaningAlso called âdata cleansingâ and âdata scrubbingâ, this is where the data selected will be prepared and pre-processed, which is very important before it can undergo any data mining technique or approach.Some data mining processes refer to data cleaning as the first of a two-step data pre-processing phase.Data obtained, in their raw form, have a tendency to contain errors, inaccuracies and inconsistencies. Some may even prove to be incomplete or missing some values. Basically, the quality of the data is compromised. It is for these reasons that various techniques are employed to âcleanâ them up. After all, poor or low quality data is unreliable for data mining.One of the biggest reasons for these errors is the data source. If data came from a single source, the most common quality problems that require cleaning up are:Data entry errors, mostly attributed to âhumanâ factor, or error of the person in charge of the input of data into the data warehouse. They could range from simple misspellings to duplication of entries and data redundancy.Lack of integrity constraints, such as uniqueness and referential integrity. Since there is only one source of data, there is no way of ascertaining whether the data is unique or not. In the same way, duplication and inconsistency may arise due to the lack of referential integrity.Similarly, data obtained from multiple sources also have quality problems.Naming conflicts, often resulting from the fact that there are multiple sources of the same data, but named differently. The risk is that there may be data duplication brought about by the different names. Or it could be the other way around. More than one or two sources may use the same name for two sets of data that are completely unrelated or different from each other.Inconsistent aggregating, or contradictions arising from data being obtained from different sources. Duplications of data may result to them cance ling each other out.Inconsistent timing, where data may tend to overlap among each other, resulting to more confusion. The data then becomes unreliable. For example, data on shopping history of a customer may overlap when sourced from various shopping sites or portals.Cleaning up data often involves performing data profiling, or examining the available data and their related statistics and information, to determine their actual content, quality and structure.Other techniques used are clustering and various statistical approaches. Once the data has been cleaned, there is a need to update the record with the clean version.Step #5: Data TransformationThis is considered to be the second data pre-processing step. Other authors even describe data transformation as part of the data cleaning process.Despite having âcleanedâ the data, they may still be incapable of being mined. To make the clean data ready for mining, they have to be transformed and consolidated accordingly. Basically, t he source data format is converted into âdestination dataâ, a format recognizable and usable when using data mining techniques later on.The most common data transformation techniques used are:Smoothing. This method removes ânoiseâ or inconsistencies in data. âNoiseâ is defined as a ârandom error or variance in a measured variable. Smoothing often entails performing tasks or operations that are also performed in data cleaning, such as:Binning. In this method, smoothing is done by referring to the âneighborhoodâ of the chosen data value, and categorically distribute them in âbinsâ. This neighborhood essentially refers to the values around the chosen data value. Sorting the values in bins or buckets will smooth out the noise.Clustering. This operation is performed by organizing values into clusters or groups, ordinarily according to a certain characteristic or variable. In short, data values that are similar will belong to one cluster. This will smooth and remove any data noise.Regression. As a method for smoothing noise in data values, linear regression works by determining the best line to fit two variables and, in the process, improve their predictive value. Multiple regression, on the other hand, also works, but involves more than two variables.Aggregation. This involves the application of summarization tactics on data to further reduce its bulk and streamline processes. Usually, this operation is used to create a data cube, which will then be used later for analysis of data. A common example is how a retail company summarizes or aggregates its sales data periodically per period. Therefore, they have data on daily, weekly, monthly and annual sales.Generalization. Much like aggregation, generalization also leads to reduction of data size. The low-level or raw data are identified and subsequently replaced with higher-level data. An example is when data values on customer age is replaced by the higher level data concept of grouping them as pre-teen, teen, middle-aged, and senior. In a similar manner, raw data on familiesâ annual income may be generalized and transformed into higher-level concepts such as low-level, mid-level, or high-income level families.Normalization or Standardization. Data variations and differences can also have an impact of data quality. Large gaps can cause problems when data mining techniques are finally applied. Thus, there is a need to normalize them. Normalization is performed by specifying a small and acceptable range (the standard), and scaling the data in order to ensure they fall within that range.Examples of normalization tactics employed are Min-Max Normalization, Z-Score Normalization, and Normalization by Decimal Scaling.Step #6: Data MiningData mining techniques will now be employed to identify the patterns, correlations or relationships within and among the database. This is the heart of the entire data mining process, involving extraction of data patterns using various methods and operations.The choice on which data mining approach or operation to use will largely depend on the objective of the entire data mining process.The most common data mining techniques will be discussed later in the article.Step #7: Pattern EvaluationThe pattern, correlations and relationships identified through data mining techniques are inspected, evaluated and analyzed. Evaluation is done by using âinterestingnessâ parameters or measures in figuring out which patterns are truly interesting and relevant or impactful enough to become a body of useful knowledge.The interpretation in this stepwill formally mark the transformation of a mere information into an entire âbag of knowledgeâ.Step #8: Knowledge PresentationThe knowledge resulting from the evaluation and interpretation will now have to be presented to stakeholders. Presentation is usually done through visualization techniques and other knowledge representation mechanisms. Once presented, the knowledge may, or will, b e used in making sound business decisions. DATA MINING TECHNIQUESOver the years, as the concept of data mining evolved, and technology has become more advanced, more and more techniques and tools were introduced to facilitate the process of data analysis. In Step #5 of the Data Mining process, the mining of the transformed data will make use of various techniques, as applicable.Below are some of the most commonly used techniques or tasks in data mining, classified whether they are descriptive or predictive in nature.Descriptive Mining TechniquesClustering or Cluster AnalysisClustering is, quite possibly, one of the oldest data mining techniques, and also one of the most effective and simplest to perform. As briefly described earlier, it involves grouping data values that have something in common, or have a similarity, together in a meaningful subset or group, which are referred to as âclustersâ.The grouping or clustering in this technique is natural, meaning there are no predefi ned classes or groups where the data values are distributed or clustered into.Perhaps the most recognizable example of clustering used as a data mining tool is in market research, particularly in market segmentation, where the market is divided into unique segments. For instance, a manufacturer of cosmetic and skin care products for females may cluster its customer data values into segments based on the age of the users. Most likely the main clusters may include teens, young adults, middle age and mature.Association Rule DiscoveryThe purpose of this technique is to provide insight on the relationships and correlations that associate or bind a set of items or data values in a large database. Analysis of data is done mostly by looking for patterns and correlations.Customer behavior is a prime example of the application of Association Rules in data mining. Businesses analyze customer behavior in order to make decisions on key areas such as product price points and product features to b e offered.Incidentally, this technique may also be predictive, such as when it is used to predict customer behavior in response to changes. For example, if the company decides to launch a new product in the market, how will the consumers receive it? Association Rules may help in making hypotheses on how the customers will accept the new product.Sequential Pattern DiscoveryThis mining technique is slightly similar to the Association Rule technique, in the sense that the focus is on the discovery of interesting relationships or associations among data values in a database. However, unlike Association Rule, Sequential Pattern Discovery considers order or sequence within a transaction and even within an organization.Sequence Discovery or Sequence Rules is often applied to data contained in sequence databases, where the values are presented in order. In the example about customer behavior, this technique may be used to get a detailed picture of the sequence of events that a customer foll ows when making a purchase. He may have a specific sequence on what product he purchases first, then second, then third, and so on.Concept or Class DescriptionThis technique is straightforward enough, focusing on âcharacterizationâ and âdiscriminationâ (which is why it is also referred to often as the Characterization and Discrimination technique. Data, or its characteristics, are generalized and summarized, and subsequently compared and contrasted.A data mining system is expected to be able to come up with a descriptive summary of the characteristics or data values. That is the data characterization aspect.For example, a company planning to expand its operations overseas is wondering which location would be most appropriate. Should they open an overseas branch in a county that experiences precipitation and storms for a greater half of the year, or should they pick a location that is mostly dry and arid throughout the year? Data characteristics on these two regions will be l ooked into for their descriptions, and then compared (or discriminated) for similarities and differences.Predictive Mining TechniquesClassificationThis method has several similarities with Clustering, which leads many to assume that they are one and the same. However, what makes them different is how, in Classification, there are already predetermined and pre-labeled instances, groups or classes. In clustering, the clusters are defined first, and the data values are put into the clusters they belong to. In classification, there are already pre-defined groups and, of course, it in these groups where the data values will be sorted into.In Classification, the data values will be segregated to the grouping or instances and be used in making predictions on how each of the data values will behave, depending on that of the other items within the class.An example is in medical research when analyzing the most common diseases that a countryâs population suffers from. The classifications of diseases are already existing, and all that is left is for the researchers to collect data on the symptoms suffered by the population and classify them under the appropriate types of diseases.Nearest Neighbor AnalysisThis predictive technique is also similar to clustering in the sense that it involves taking the chosen data value in context of the other values around it. While clustering involves data values in extremely close proximity with each other, seeing as they belong to the same cluster, the nearest neighbor is more on the nearness of the data values being matched or compared to the chosen data value.In the cosmetic and skin care product manufacturing company example cited above, this technique may be used when the company wants to figure out which of their products are the bestsellers in their many locations or branches. If Product A is the bestseller in Location 1, and Location 10 is where Product J is selling like hot cakes, then the chances are greater that Location 2, which is nearer to Location 1 than Location 10 is, will also record higher sales for Product A more than Product J.RegressionRegression techniques come in handy when trying to determine relationships dependent and independent variables. It is a popular technique primarily because of its predictive capabilities, which is why you are likely to see it applied in business planning, marketing, budgeting, and financial forecasting, among others.Simple linear regression, which contains only one predictor (independent variable) and one dependent variable, resulting to a prediction. Presented graphically, the regression model that demonstrates a shorter distance or line between the X-axis (the predictor) and the Y-axis (the prediction or data point) will be the simple linear regression model to be used for predictive purposes.Multiple linear regression, which aims to predict the value of the responses or predictions with respect to multiple independent variables or predictors. Compared to th e simple regression, this is fairly more complicated and work-intensive, since it deals with a larger data set.Regression analysis is often used in data mining for purposes of predicting customer behavior in making purchases using their credit cards, or making an estimate of how long a manufacturing equipment will remain serviceable before it requires a major overhaul or repair. In the latter example, the company may plan and budget its expenditure on repairs and maintenance of equipment accordingly, and maybe even assess the feasibility of purchasing a new equipment instead of repeatedly spending more money on maintenance of the old one.So, now here is the fun stuff (hint: its the video :-). Decision TreesWhat makes this predictive technique very popular is its visual presentation of data values in a tree. The tree represents the original set of data, which are then segmented or divided into the branches, with each leaf representing a segment. The prediction is the result of a seri es of decisions, presented in the tree diagrams as a Yes/No question.What makes this model even more preferred is how the segments come with descriptions. This versatility â" offering both descriptive and predictive value in an easy-to-understand presentation â" is the main reason why decision trees are gaining much traction in data mining and database management, in general.Outlier AnalysisIn instances where there are already established models or general behavior expected from data objects, data mining may be done by taking a look at the exceptions or, in this case, what we call the âoutliersâ. These are the data objects that do not fall within the established model or do not comply with the expected general behavior. The result of these deviations may prove to be data that can be used as a body of knowledge later on.A classic example of applying outlier analysis is in credit card fraud detection. The shopping history of a specific customer already provides an e-tailer (onli ne retail store) a set of general behavioral data to base on. When trying to find if the fraudulent purchases have been made using the credit card of that customer, the focus of the analysis will be unusual purchases in his shopping history, such as surprisingly large amounts spent on a single purchase, or the unusual purchase of a specific item that is completely unrelated to all previous purchases.If the customer, for the past three years, has made a purchase at least once in every 2 months, a single month with the customer purchasing more than two or three times is enough to raise a red flag that his credit card may have been stolen and being improperly and fraudulently used.Evolution AnalysisWhen the data to be subjected to mining inherently changes or evolves over time, and the goal is to establish a clear pattern that will help in predicting the future behavior of the data object, a recommended approach is evolution analysis.Evolution analysis involves the identification, desc ription and modeling of trends, patterns and other regularities with respect to the behavior of data objects as they evolve or change. Thus, you will often find this applied the mining and analysis of time-series data. Stock market trends, specifically on stock prices in the stock market, are subjected to time-series analysis. The output will enable investors and stock market analysts to predict the future trend of the stock market, and this will ultimately guide them in making their stock investment decisions.There are a lot of other techniques used in data mining, and we named only a few of the most popular and the most commonly used approaches. Application of these techniques also require the use of other disciplines and tools, such as statistics, mathematics, and software management.The success of a business rides a lot on how good management is at decision-making. And let us not forget that a decision will only be as good as the quality of the information or knowledge tapped in to by the decision-makers. High quality information will rely heavily on how the collection, processing and evaluation of data. If data mining was unsuccessful or less than effective in the first place, then there is a great chance that the resulting âbag of knowledgeâ will not be as accurate and effective as well, and poor business decisions may be arrived at.
Saturday, May 23, 2020
During The Mid-1960S To 1980, The Black Power Movement
During the mid-1960s to 1980, The Black Power movement was highly important for African Americans in the United States. This time frame increased the self-determination of black pride and the empowering movements that took place across the nation. The development of organizations influence African Americans to form unity, group awareness, and institutions in order to enhance the race as a whole. Important activists stood firm in their prolific speeches, which influenced the nation to believe that change is obtainable with determination, ââ¬Å"the changing mood of black activists ushered in a new goal-the acquisition of sufficient power resources in the black community to protect black people interest in the vital institutions- economical,â⬠¦show more contentâ⬠¦The Black Power movement resembled another phase, known as the Revolutionary Nationalist. This particular revolutionary action improved the status of African American by striking fear into white supremacy. Thus, inflic ting verbal and physical pain are actions that crippled African Americans for decades, reversing the role will display a sense of power into the hearts of blacks. Embedding the pride of people ancestors as a burden will only awaken the wrath of a superior race, ââ¬Å"The movementââ¬â¢s heyday is marked in the American Imagination by race riots, gun-toting black militants, and the cultural flourishes of bold Afros, African dashikis, and militant poetryâ⬠(Joseph 708). First, an individual must understand their importance which leads to affirmative action in order for change to become in affect, H. Rap Brownââ¬â¢s comments pertaining to revolutionary nationalists, ââ¬Å"write me a novel about how to infiltrate the FBI and destroy it. Write me poems that say more than that you are Black and beautifulâ⬠(Wilson 46). The phases of the Black Power Movement were a direct result of the important leaders that influenced African Americans. One such leader was Stokely Carmich ael. Born in Spain on June 29, 1941, Kwame Tune better known as ââ¬Å"Stokely Carmichaelâ⬠became the core of an important movement that will forever resemble black pride. In mid-June 1966, Stokely Carmichael implemented the slogan ââ¬Å"Black Powerâ⬠during a civil rights movement in Greenwood, Mississippi (JosephShow MoreRelatedEssay on The Chicano Power Movement775 Words à |à 4 PagesThe Chicano Power Movement The Chicano power movement of the 1960s is characterized by Carlos Munoz, jr. as a movement led by the decedents of Mexican Americans who pressed for assimilation. These young people, mostly students, became tired of listening to school rhetoric that stressed patriotism when they were being discriminated against outside the classroom. Unlike their parents, the young people of the Chicano movement did not want to assimilate into mainstream America and lose their identityRead MoreFinally, Black Feminism Highlights The Unique Experiences1232 Words à |à 5 PagesFinally, Black feminism highlights the unique experiences of Black women, but it lies in its commitment to justice, not just for Black women but for that of other similarly oppressed groups. An essential idea within Black feminism is intersectionality in that they argue that race, class, gender, sexuality, etc. are bound together (Garcia, 2016). In other words, white women and black women do not share identical experiences, de spite all being female. Likewise, a middle-class black woman has a differentRead MoreWhy Did The Black Power Movement Come Into Existence? Essay1805 Words à |à 8 PagesThe Black Power Movement Why did the Black Power Movement come into existence? The Black Power Movement grew out of black dissatisfaction with the Civil Rights Movement in the second half of the 1960s. The Civil Rights Movement was a movement that emerged in 1890 after the system of Jim Crow which included exclusion and degradation of the citizenship rights of African Americans. The main aspects were racial segregation ââ¬â upheld by the United States Supreme Court decision Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896Read MoreBastard of the Party Essay966 Words à |à 4 Pagesthe bastard offspring of the political parties such as the 1960ââ¬â¢s. The Great Migration occurred upon African-American migrating from the south in order to escape racism and prejudice in the south as well as to seek industrial jobs. There was a train that would stop through every town but blacks could only depart at Central Avenue. We as blacks were limited to certain neighborhoods and places we could live and go for entertainment. The 1960ââ¬â¢s or 1970ââ¬â¢s is when gangs were originated. Gangs became aRead MoreRacial Discrimination During Mississippi History1159 Words à |à 5 Pages Throughout Mississippi history discrimination due to race has been very prevalent . Although racial discrimination has occurred all over Mississippi, throughout time extreme measures against blacks occurred early on in the delta. Within the delta, Sunflower country was an area of extreme discrimination and outright hate. White men and even women in Sunflower county and the surrounding areas always made a point to let African Americans know they were not welcome, but starting in the 1950s continuingRead More Apartheid in South Africa1656 Words à |à 7 PagesDuring my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die. -- Nelson Mandela -- 20 April 1964. Rivonia trial Historical Background Read MoreJamaica, A Large Melting Pot Of Many Cultures And Tourist Attractions1241 Words à |à 5 Pagespopulation of 2.9 million, making it the third largest countries in the Caribbean region. Christianity is the largest religion present in Jamaica, the largest branches being the Anglican Church, the Baptists, and The Catholic; with the Rastafarian movement being derived from Christian culture. The original inhabitants of Jamaica were a South American group called Arawaks. Over 2,500 years ago, the Arawaks found settlement on the island and called it ââ¬Å"Xaymacaâ⬠a phrase which means ââ¬Å"the land of waterRead MoreIndian Inflation1259 Words à |à 6 Pageson the price level.â⬠The percentage of inflation in regard to price movements and the purchasing power of the rupee need to be evaluated on the basis of wholesale price index (WPI) with 1950-51 as the base year. Unfortunately, the government with the intention of preventing a factual comparison of the purchasing power of rupee, keeps changing the base year every decade, from 1950-51 to 1960-61, later to 1970-71 and finally to 1980-81. Deficit financing in every five year plan and improper planningRead MoreInternational Responses Of The Apartheid1195 Words à |à 5 PagesRESPONSES TO THE APARTHEIDââ¬â¢S REFORMS FROM THE 1960S TO THE 1980S The National Party (NP) won the national election in 1948 on a platform of segregation and racism under the slogan ââ¬ËApartheidââ¬â¢. To a greater a extent, during the 1980s, the apartheid government came under increasing international pressure to end apartheid. There was no difference between apartheid and the policy of segregation of South Africa which existed before the National Party came into power in 1948. The fact that South Africa madeRead MoreFamous Jazz Saxophonist And Educator Ahmad Alaadeen925 Words à |à 4 PagesEuropean countries. During this period, America was known as the country of opportunity. Europeans began to immigrate to different American cities in search for a place that they would be accepted. With these people came a sort of new musical traditions as good, such as Irish gigs, German waltzes, and French quadrilles. Soon many African American musicians began to fuse European music with their more traditional music.One very well-known African American composer who started this movement was Scott Joplin
Tuesday, May 12, 2020
Qualitative Research On Research Methods Essay - 839 Words
This type of research methods involve describing in detail specific situation using research tools like interviews, surveys, and Observations. Qualitative Research is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research. Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota. so it is useful for each and every methods. Quantitative This type of research methods requires quantifiable data involving numerical and statistical explanations. Quantitative Research is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into usable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables ââ¬â and generalize results from a larger sample population. Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methhelloys face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, onlineShow MoreRelatedQualitative Research : Research Methods1166 Words à |à 5 Pages Qualitative Research Name: Allana Sibille SOC 333: Research Methods Professor: Risa Garelick December 3rd, 2015 Qualitative Research Qualitative research reflects the multiple ways researcherââ¬â¢s collect data and explore information through literature review. Participantââ¬â¢s review is often observed for analysis while ââ¬Å"the role of the researcher focuses as the primary data collection instrument necessitates the identification of personal values, assumptions and biases at the outsetRead MoreQualitative Research : Research Methods1219 Words à |à 5 PagesQualitative Research Justin Netcher SOC 333: Research Methods Jeremy Baker December 19, 2016 Qualitative Research Qualitative research reflects different ways that researcherââ¬â¢s collect data and explore all of the information through literature review. Participantââ¬â¢s that are reviewing is often observed for analysis while ââ¬Å"the role of the researcher focuses as the primary data collection instrument necessitates the identification of personal values, assumptions and biases at the outset ofRead MoreQualitative Research Methods5213 Words à |à 21 PagesOVERVIEW Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collectorââ¬â¢s Field Guide Module 1 Qualitative Research Methods Overview F A M I L Y H E A L T H I N T E R N A T I O N A L Qualitative Research Methods Overview OVERVIEW T â⬠¢ â⬠¢ â⬠¢ â⬠¢ â⬠¢ â⬠¢ his module introduces the fundamental elements of a qualitative approach to research, to help you understand and become proficient in the qualitative methods discussed in subsequent modules. We recommend that you consult the suggested readings at the end of the moduleRead MoreQualitative Research Methods1185 Words à |à 5 PagesCOURSE | : | QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS AND APPROACHES | COURSE CODE | : | BIR6024 | CREDIT | : | 4 | SLT | : | 160 hours | PREREQUISITE | : | GRU6014 | SEMESTER | : | First / Second | LEARNING OUTCOMES | : | 1. Use qualitative research methods and approaches in collecting and analyzing data. 2. Conduct qualitative research methods in education. 3. Critical in evaluating research reports. 4. Demonstrate ethical practices in collecting and analyzing data. | SYNOPSISLECTURERSââ¬â¢Read MoreQualitative Research Methods5198 Words à |à 21 PagesOVERVIEW Qualitative Research Methods: A Data Collectorââ¬â¢s Field Guide Module 1 Qualitative Research Methods Overview F A M I L Y H E A L T H I N T E R N A T I O N A L Qualitative Research Methods Overview OVERVIEW T â⬠¢ â⬠¢ â⬠¢ â⬠¢ â⬠¢ â⬠¢ his module introduces the fundamental elements of a qualitative approach to research, to help you understand and become proficient in the qualitative methods discussed in subsequent modules. We recommend that you consult the suggested readingsRead MoreQualitative Research Methods6311 Words à |à 26 PagesPROJECT QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS FROM AN ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVE à hsan Ulaà ¾ Kocaoà °lu JANUARY 2006 CONTENTS Definition of Qualitative Research in Social Sciences Approaches to Management Research Positivism versus Phenomenology Deductive and Inductive Schools of Thought in Management Research Major Qualitaitve Research Approaches Ethnographic Approach Phenomenology Field Research Grounded Theory Case study Action Research Narrative research Qualitative DataRead MoreQualitative Research Methods4061 Words à |à 17 PagesBusiness Research Skills Qualitative Research Report Business Research Skills Qualitative Research Report Teresa Cooney B00251777 Teresa Cooney B00251777 Contents Introduction 2 1. Research Design 3 1.1 Qualitative Research Methods 3 1.2 Thematic Analysis 3 2. Findings and Analysis 6 References 8 Appendix 1 9 Appendix 2 13 Introduction This report has been commissioned by the University of the West of Scotland (Paisley campus) for the Business Research SkillsRead MoreMethods And Methods Of Qualitative Research1057 Words à |à 5 PagesMethod Approach Qualitative research is normally recognizable via the use of methods that include, in-depth interviews and group moderation techniques; a particular objective to answer is ââ¬Å"why?â⬠and ââ¬Å"how?â⬠(Bailey, 2014). One of the great benefits of the qualitative research method is that it offers a wide range of approaches that can be used to capture data. In order to ensure credibility, two approaches will be used to conduct this research. The ethnographic approach will be used to understandRead MoreQualitative Research Methods986 Words à |à 4 Pagesbi-weekly interviews for 14 weeks, relevant document collection, and field notes. Each interview took around sixty minutes. The survey was used to understand respondentsââ¬â¢ general education background and select suitable participants for the further qualitative data collection. Interviews asked their English and academic learning situations in Taiwan, the processes of studying in graduate programs, present doctoral le arning situations, in and out of class academic (writing) activities, academic (writing)Read MoreQualitative Quantitative Research Methods1047 Words à |à 5 PagesQualitative amp; Quantitative Research Methods PSY 326 Dr. Willow Aureala March 29, 2011 Qualitative amp; Quantitative Research Methods There are two types of research methods: qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative research methods are complex meaningful analyses characterized by processes and meanings that are not measured in terms of mathematical measurements. Quantitative research however, relies and builds on mathematical procedures and methods, such as frequency, quality, amount
Wednesday, May 6, 2020
Allegory Criticism Free Essays
Allegory Criticism: Essay #3 Daââ¬â¢Andrea Bell Allegory criticism is an extended metaphor in which a person, abstract idea or event stands for itself and for something else. Usually involves moral or spiritual concepts which are more significant than the actual narrative. In the fiction reading, ââ¬Å"The man In the Black Suitâ⬠by Stephen King, the main character Gary a young boy at the age of nine has found himself coming face to face with someone he believes is the devil. We will write a custom essay sample on Allegory Criticism or any similar topic only for you Order Now While out for a day of fishing Gary is approached by a man mysterious looking man. In the reading the author describes this mysterious man, ââ¬Å"His face was very long and pale. His black hair was combed tight against his skull and parted with rigorous care on the light side of his narrow head. He was very tall. He was wearing a black three-piece suit, and I knew right away that he was not a human being, because his eyes were the orangey red of flames in a woodstove. I donââ¬â¢t mean just the irises, because he had no irises, and no pupils, and certainly no whites. His eyes were completely orange-an orange that shifted and flickered. And itââ¬â¢s really too late not to say exactly what I mean, isnââ¬â¢t it? He was on fire inside, and his eyes were like the little isinglass portholes you sometime see in stove doors. Something that he has never witnessed just has always heard about in church and from what his parents always taught him when growing up. His innocent is threatened. Stephen King uses everyday events and objects to represent spiritual references, including the characters. The man in the black suit represents the devil and the young boy rep resents purity and innocents. The setting also sets the mood, where King sets majority of the reading in the woods, a place what is usually looked at as a place that kids are not allowed to go by themselves. The woods were usually looked at as the forbidden part of the yard. As Gary goes further in the woods is when Gary comes in contact with the man in the black suit which is referred to as the devil himself and also the bee; which Gary believes it is the same exact bee that killed his brother. Gary is forced with facing impure spiritual desires; such as the fear of possible death, embarrassment (when he peed on himself), shame and also the possibility of being deprived of the ones closets to him. When finally able o get himself together, Gary snaps into action and is able to run for his life and shake the devil off. Gary does not believe that he was dreaming, but that the evil he has encountered is reality and that they actually took place. Also when the father goes looking for Gary, the look on his face and actions shows that he too has also encountered it once before. Gary is just lucky that he has been able to live to tell the tale. Work Cited ââ¬Å"The Man in the Black Suit. â⬠à Analysis. N. p. , n. d. Web. 03 Nov. 2012. http://wp. stockton. du/lawlerkc/analysis/. Mulverhill, Gisele. ââ¬Å"Short Story Reviews: The Man in the Black Suit, by Steven King. ââ¬Å"Helium. Helium, 19 Aug. 2010. Web. 03 Nov. 2012. http://www. helium. com/items/1926945-stephen-king-the-man-in-the-black-suit-hStephen King, Fiction, ââ¬Å"The Man in the Black Suit,â⬠à The New Yorker, October 31, 1994, p. 92 Stephen King, Fiction, ââ¬Å"The Man in the Black Suit,â⬠à The New Yorker, October 31, 1994, p. 92 Read moreà http://www. newyorker. com/archive/1994/10/31/1994_10_31_092_TNY_CARDS_000367702#ixzz2B8KNINIM How to cite Allegory Criticism, Papers
Saturday, May 2, 2020
Fibbonacci Essay Example For Students
Fibbonacci Essay In 1175 AD, one of the greatest European mathematicians was born. His birth name was Leonardo Pisano. Pisano is Italian for the city of Pisa, which is where Leonardo was born. Leonardo wanted to carry his family name so he called himself Fibonacci, which is pronounced fib-on-arch-ee. Guglielmo Bonnacio was Leonardos father. Fibonacci is a nickname, which comes from filius Bonacci, meaning son of Bonacci. However, occasionally Leonardo would use Bigollo as his last name. Bigollo means traveler. I will call him Leonardo Fibonacci, but if anyone who does any research work on him may find the other names listed in older books. Guglielmo Bonaccio, Leonardos father, was a customs officer in Bugia, which is a Mediterranean trading port in North Africa. He represented the merchants from Pisa that would trade their products in Bugia. Leonardo grew up in Bugia and was educated by the Moors of North Africa. As Leonardo became older, he traveled quite extensively with his father around the Mediterranean coast. They would meet with many merchants. While doing this Leonardo learned many different systems of mathematics. Leonardo recognized the advantages of the different mathematical systems of the different countries they visited. But he realized that the ââ¬Å"Hindu-Arabicâ⬠system of mathematics had many more advantages than all of the other systems combined. Leonardo stopped travelling with his father in the year 1200. He returned to Pisa and began writing. Books by Fibonacci Leonardo wrote numerous books regarding mathematics. The books include his own contributions, which have become very significant, al ong with ancient mathematical skills that needed to be revived. Only four of his books remain today. His books were all handwritten so the only way for a person to obtain one in the year 1200 was to have another handwritten copy made. The four books that still exist are Liber abbaci, Practica geometriae, Flos, and Liber quadratorum. Leonardo had written several other books, which unfortunately were lost. These books included Di minor guisa and Elements. Di minor guisa contained information on commercial mathematics. His book Elements was a commentary to Euclidââ¬â¢s Book X. In Book X, Euclid had approached irrational numbers from a geometric perspective. In Elements, Leonardo utilized a numerical treatment for the irrational numbers. Practical applications such as this made Leonardo famous among his contemporaries. Leonardoââ¬â¢s book Liber abbaci was published in 1202. He dedicated this book to Michael Scotus. Scotus was the court astrologer to the Holy Roman Emperor Fredrick II. Leonardo based this book on the mathematics and algebra that he had learned through his travels. The name of the book Liber abbaci means book of the abacus or book of calculating. This was the first book to introduce the Hindu-Arabic place value decimal system and the use of Arabic numerals in Europe. Liber abbaci is predominately about how to use the Arabic numeral system, but Leonardo also covered linear equations in this book. Many of the problems Leonardo used in Liber abacci were similar to problems that appeared in Arab sources. Liber abbaci was divided into four sections. In the second section of this book, Leonardo focused on problems that were practical for merchants. The problems in this section relate to the price of goods, how to calculate profit on transactions, how to convert between the various currencies in Mediterranean countries and other problems that had originated in China. In the third section of Liber abbaci, there are problems that involve perfect numbers, the Chinese remainder theorem, geometric series and summing arithmetic. But Leonardo is best remembe red today for this one problem in the third section: ââ¬Å"A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbits can be produced from that pair in a year if it is supposed that every month each pair begets a new pair which from the second month on becomes productive?â⬠This problem led to the introduction of the Fibonacci numbers and the Fibonacci sequence, which will be discussed in further detail in section II. Today almost 800 years later there is a journal called the ââ¬Å"Fibonacci Quarterlyâ⬠which is devoted to studying mathematics related to the Fibonacci sequence. In the fourth section of Liber abbaci Leonardo discusses square roots. He utilized rational approximations and geometric constructions. Leonardo produced a second edition of Liber abbaci in 1228 in which he added new information and removed unusable information. Leonardo wrote his second book, Practica geometriae, in 1220. He dedicated this book to Dominicus Hispanus who was among the Holy Roman Emperor Fredrick IIââ¬â¢s court. Dominicus had suggested that Fredrick meet Leonardo and challenge him to solve numerous mathematical problems. Leonardo accepted the challenge and solved the problems. He then listed the problems and solutions to the problems in his third book Flos. Practica geometriae consists largely of geometry problems and theorems. The theorems in this book were based on the combination of Euclidââ¬â ¢s Book X and Leonardââ¬â¢s commentary, Elements, to Book X. Practica geometriae also included a wealth of information for surveyors such as how to calculate the height of tall objects using similar triangles. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT EssayRoot Finding Leonardo amazingly calculated the answer to the following challenge posed by Holy Roman Emperor Fredrick II: What causes this to be an amazing accomplishment is that Leonardo calculated the answer to this mathematical problem utilizing the Babylonian system of mathematics, which uses base 60. His answer to the problem above was: 1, 22, 7, 42, 33, 4, 40 is equivalent to: Three hundred years passed before anyone else was able to obtain the same accurate results. Fibonacci Sequence As discussed earlier, the Fibonacci sequence is what Leonardo is famous for today. In the Fibonacci sequence each number is equal to the sum of the two previous numbers. For example: (1,1,2,3,5,8,13â⬠¦) Or 1+1=2 1+2=3 2+3=5 3+5=8 5+8=13 Leonardo used his sequence method to answer the previously mentioned rabbit problem. I will restate the rabbit problem: ââ¬Å"A certain man put a pair of rabbits in a place surrounded on all sides by a wall. How many pairs of rabbit s can be produced from that pair in a year if it is supposed that every month each pair begets a new pair which from the second month on becomes productive?â⬠I will now give the answer to the problem, which I discovered in the ââ¬Å"Mathematics Encyclopediaâ⬠. ââ¬Å"It is easy to see that 1 pair will be produced the first month, and 1 pair also in the second month (since the new pair produced in the first month is not yet mature), and in the third month 2 pairs will be produced, one by the original pair and one by the pair which was produced in the first month. In the fourth month 3 pairs will be produced, and in the fifth month 5 pairs. After this things expand rapidly, and we get the following sequence of numbers: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 235, â⬠¦ This is an example of recursive sequence, obeying the simple rule that two calculate the next term one simply sums the preceding two. Thus 1 and 1 are 2, 1 and 2 are 3, 2 and 3 are 5, and so on.â⬠(page 1) III Conclusion Conclusion Leonardo Fibonacci was a mathematical genius of his time. His findings have contributed to the methods of mathematics that are still in use today. His mathematical influence continues to be evident by such mediums as the Fibonacci Quarterly and the numerous internet sites discussing his contributions. Many colleges offer classes that are devoted to the Fibonacci methods. Leonardoââ¬â¢s dedication to his love of mathematics rightfully earned him a respectable place in world history. A statue of him stands today in Pisa, Italy near the famous Leaning Tower. It is a commemorative symbol that signifies the respect and gratitude that Italy endures toward him. Many of Leonardoââ¬â¢s methods will continue to be taught for generations to come. Works Cited Dr. Ron Knott ââ¬Å"Fibonacciââ¬â¢s Mathematical Contributionsâ⬠March 6, 1998 www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibBio.html (Feb. 10, 1999) ââ¬Å"Mathematics Encyclopediaâ⬠www.mathacademy.com/platonic_realms/encyclop/articles/fibonac.html (March 23, 1999)Bibliography:
Tuesday, March 24, 2020
How Effective Communication improves employee performance
Introduction Communication is the act of passing messages from one person to another through a given medium. Communication in an organization is vital because it facilitates how decisions are passed from the top level management to the lowest level management. Communication is used to facilitate the delivery of guidelines and policies that necessitate the proper management of any given organization.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on How Effective Communication improves employee performance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thus, communication is a crucial process in any organizational operation. In this case, it determines how guidelines are followed. It also establishes new ways to manage the resources and the human power in the organization (Murphy Hildebrandt, 1988). This paper discusses communication and its impact on building relationships, professionalism, and motivating employees in an organization. Bui lding relationships with employees For effective communication to be achieved in an organization, the management should create good relationships with the employees and clients. Good relationships create a clear environment to make appropriate decisions. An organization deserves an excellent leader so that the decisions made are accurate. Therefore, the qualities of a leader are important in encouraging employees to perform their tasks. Leadership also helps to execute a plan to make decisions and pass them to employees. Effective communication plays a major role in improving the performance and morale of employees in any given organization. A leader should possess effective communication skills that he or she uses to pass a message to the followers. Communication skills are a necessary tool for a leader because people are influenced by the ability of the leader to express himself or herself to the people. A leader should communicate about the issues arising in an organization effec tively and give proper advice on how to meet the set goals and objectives (Roodman Roodman, 1973). A leader should possess management skill in the sense that the leader can manage human skills and talent. The leaders should inspire the followers to work towards achieving the goals. A manager should possess a good attitude to facilitate a respectable leadership of people. A leader should possess business skills in the execution of duties because they set how each decision plan is applied in the organization. Business skills help in the management of finances and how to draw viable plans that are of great help to the whole team. Harnessing business skills help the leader to assign and delegate duties and responsibilities to the subordinates.Advertising Looking for term paper on business communication? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More An excellent manager should create a working relationship with people within and outside the org anization. They should create friendship with all stakeholders so that people can approach the leaders for consultation (Adair, 2009). An example of a leader is Steve Jobs, the former CEO of the Apple Company. He built strong relationships with the employees. This empowered employees to develop innovative products. Creating a strong relationship with employees is of paramount importance as it helps the organization to operate well and effectively without many interruptions, which delay the operations. The creation of a good working environment through proper communication helps the employees to perform better as their concerns are heard and addressed. The employees feel recognized and motivated to work, and thus their performance is greatly improved. Communication channels should be improved in order for employees to contribute and be a part of the decision making process. Motivation Motivation is the drive that an employee has to achieve the goals of an organization. Motivation inc reases the efficiency of employees in any given organization. Motivating factors do not only have to be financial incentives. Therefore, non-monetary incentives may be offered to the employees to improve their performance. A good manager should improve the working conditions of employees in the workplace. Effective communication in the organization enables the leaders to know about the complaints from the subordinates. In addition, communication facilitates effective decision making because the employees contribute towards making appropriate decisions. When employees are trained in effective communication, they improve their communication in the workplace (DelPo, 2007). A leader should empower team members by setting attainable objectives for individuals and the whole team. A leader should ensure that team members have access to facilities and resources that help to attain the set goals and objectives. Rewarding employees who have effective communication encourages other employees t o improve on their communication processes (Nelson Quick, 2008). An example where motivation affected the performance of employees is the case of Wal-Mart. The company does not motivate its employees, and this has caused many strikes. The company has experienced lawsuits because employees have sought to get better working conditions. Wal-Mart is one of the world largest retailers.Advertising We will write a custom term paper sample on How Effective Communication improves employee performance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The company is incorporated in the United States. In addition, the company operates international outlets in a number of countries worldwide. It is one of the largest employer in the world through its numerous facilities in the United States and other nations. An example of an entrepreneur who motivates the employees is Richard Branson, the president of the Virgin group of companies. Branson approaches each a ctivity of the company with a lot of smartness and manages to attain leading business goals. Branson has encouraged the employees to improve their performance to achieve the goals of the company. The company operates in several countries, and there are people from different cultures. Branson has been successful in managing people from the different cultures effectively. Richard has good communication skills because he can intermingle with people from different cultures. The company has achieved a lot of success because it has created a good relationship with customers globally. Developing professionalism Professionalism is the process of achieving goals of an organization according to the standards of the organization. It involves adhering to the standards of a certain work. Managers should be encouraged or trained to learn the emotions of their subordinates and the senior managers. Therefore, managers should have emotional intelligence in the workplace. They should apply this strat egy when interacting with various people in the organization. Passing information in an organization is crucial because it helps to increase the productivity of the firm. When decisions are to made in the firm, managers should know how such changes affect the work ethics of the employees. This is important because it helps to lower the possibility of encountering resistance by fellow employees when the changes are implemented. Communication is an integral part of management because it incorporates changes in the organization. Professionalism is evident when the management chooses to use modern forms of communication that are effective. Modern communication methods have improved the way people in an organization communicate and pass information. This is crucial because it establishes clear plans and goals for the organization. Information in the organization is critical because leaders and managers need to have a clear feedback of operations at the lowest level, and this helps in the continuation of services (Kozà minà ski Cushman, 1993).Advertising Looking for term paper on business communication? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Feedback system will guide the employees on areas of weakness, and this helps them improve on the communication process. Providing feedback is important in solving the communication problems facing the workers. As a manager, one should formulate a good way to solve problems facing employees at the workplace. A leader may install suggestion boxes that act as information gathering tools in the organization. A leader may open a joint email where employees can send their suggestions and the leader should reply to mails. As a manager, one should exercise professionalism when passing information across the organization. This facilitates proper decision making and execution of plans and goals for the organization. This strategy ensures that the business is monitored, and the performance of employees is improved over time (Garber, 2008). Conclusion The power of communication cannot be ignored. Communication is an important process in an organization because it links various stakeholders. Pe ople understand the processes of an organization through communication. In addition, decisions are made through communication. The management of any organization should account for the economic importance of its workforce and the role that employees play in attaining organizational goals and objectives. This ensures that the performance of employees is improved. Motivation of employees may take the form of non-monetary incentives through recognition and offering training facilities. Communication can also be used to motivate employees. When communication is improved in an organization, the employees interact well. This helps to motivate employees, and the performance is improved. Therefore, managers should embrace good communication strategies to improve the performance. References Adair, J. E. (2009). Effective communication: The most important management skill of all. London: Pan Books. DelPo, A. (2007). The performance appraisal handbook: Legal practical rules for managers. Berk eley, Calif: NOLO. Garber, P. R. (2008). Performance feedback. Amherst, Mass: HRD Press. Kozà minà ski, A. K., Cushman, D. P. (1993). Organizational communication and management: A global perspective. Albany: State University of New York Press. Murphy, H. A., Hildebrandt, H. W. (1988). Effective business communications. New York [etc.: McGraw-Hill. Nelson, D. L., Quick, J. C. (2008). Understanding organizational behavior. Mason, OH, USA: Thomson/South-Western. Roodman, H., Roodman, Z. (1973). Management of communication. Toronto [usw.: Methuen. This term paper on How Effective Communication improves employee performance was written and submitted by user Lucille Kinney to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.
Friday, March 6, 2020
my SWOT Essay Essays
my SWOT Essay Essays my SWOT Essay Essay my SWOT Essay Essay BookletMore information from hypertext transfer protocol: //www. researchandmarkets. com/reports/641109/ London Biscuits BHDDescription: Quantitative analyses of fiscal statements ( Income Statement. Balance Sheet and Sources of Capital ) . extended ratio tabular arraies ( Accounting. Asset Utilization. Employee Efficiency. Fixed Charges Coverage. Leverage Analysis. Liquidity Analysis. Per-share Data and Profitability Analysis ) and proprietary Wright Quality Rating analyses tabular arraies. The Wright Quality Rating. a step of corporate hazard. examines the liquidness of the stock. fiscal strength. profitableness and corporate growing features of London Biscuits BHD. There is a textual reappraisal of the fiscal consequences of London Biscuits BHD versus Cocoaland Holdings Bhd. Apollo Food Holdings Berhad and Teck Guan Perdana Berhad. The comparative analysis of these companies compares Gross saless ( gross revenues. gross revenues growing and gross revenues per employee ) . Company Valuations ( Price/Earnings. Price/Book. Price/Sales and 52-Week Price Change ) and Fiscal Position ( Long-term Debt/Equity ) . Besides i ncluded for London Biscuits BHD are the Company Description. Recent Stock Performance. Profitability Analysis. Dividend Analysis. and Key Data Items ( Ticker. Major Industry. Sub-Industry. Fiscal Year End Month. Employees. Share Type. Market Capitalization. Entire Shares Outstanding and Number of Closely Held Shares. ) Additional research for London Biscuits BHDincludes tabular arraies with up to 10-years of history of computed ratios. gross revenues. net incomes. and security monetary values. Contentss: This merchandise typically includes the undermentioned subdivisions:Company Fundamentalssââ¬â Company Profileââ¬â Comparative Business Analysisââ¬â Summary Analysis per Shareââ¬â Gross saless Analysisââ¬â Price Analysisââ¬â Net incomes and Dividends AnalysisFiscal Statement Analysissââ¬â Balance Sheet ââ¬â Common Sizeââ¬â Balance Sheet ââ¬â Year-Year Percent Changeââ¬â Balance Sheet ââ¬â Five-Year Averages- Income Statement ââ¬â Common Size ââ¬â Income Statement ââ¬â Year-Year Percent Changeââ¬â Income Statement ââ¬â Five-Year Averages- Sources of CapitalFinancial Ratio Analysesââ¬â Accounting Ratios- Asset Utilization- Employee Efficiencyââ¬â Fixed Charges Coverage ââ¬â Leverage Analysisââ¬â Liquidity Analysis- Per-Share Dataââ¬â Profitability AnalysisWright Quality Rating Analysissââ¬â Investment Credenceââ¬â Financial Strengthââ¬â Profitability and Stabilityââ¬â Corporate Gro wthNotes:ââ¬â Report is included when there are five or more old ages of informations history. - Report is included when employee counts are available.- These studies are non produced for Financial Companies. 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Tuesday, February 18, 2020
The Mental Capacity Act 2005 Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 9500 words
The Mental Capacity Act 2005 - Coursework Example The second section highlights the rights for individuals to be supported to make their own decisions i.e. individual must be provided with all appropriate help before any other individual concludes that he or she cannot their own decisions. The third section is focused on the need to retain the right to make what might be seen as eccentric or unwise decision. The fourth section is based on best interests i.e. any decision or exercise conducted for or on behalf of people without capacity must be in their best interests, the fifth section is the study of least restrictive intervention i.e. any exercise or decision made for or on behalf of individual without capacity should be the least restrictive of their basic rights and freedoms. The Mental Capacity Act 2005 preserves in order current best practice and common law principles concerning people, people who lack mental capacity and people who take decisions on their behalf. The Act replaces current constitutional system for continuing powers of attorney and Court of Protection receivers with improved and updated schemes. (Deryck. Beyleveld, David Townend, Jessica Wright (2005).Research Ethics Committees, Data Protection, and Medical Research in European Countries). According to the Mental Act 2005, individual or group of individuals is provided with the legal authority to make decisions on the behalf of those individuals who experience mental suffering, or are emotionally and mentally destabilize. The Act manages decision-making on behalf of adults who lack mental capacity, both where they lose capacity at some point in their lives, and where the incapacitating condition has been present since birth. The Act provides with authority with the capacity to make decisions, covering all different aspects and situations, it covers all decisions, including personal welfare and financial matters, and covers decision-making on their behalf by attorneys, or deputies appointed by the courts. The Act also rectifies the process and position for conducting the exercise, if formal process has not been adopted. The proposed Mental Capacity Act evolved gradually, in consultation with the legislators and people affiliated with social sciences. Presently attorneys or receivers are legally bound to make decisions only on financial matters. The Act provides clarity and demarcations about who can make decisions and the manner of making decisions. The Act is an attempt towards protecting vulnerable people, carers and professionals. The Mental Capacity Act 2005 was drafted after years and series of consultation with people belonging to different spheres of life. The Law Commission began the process in 1989, ands in 1995 the Commission produced the report and drafted the Bill. The Government responded in 1997 with a green paper, and a policy statement in 1999. A draft Mental Incapacity Bill was published in June 2003 and examined by a Joint Committee of both Houses of Parliament. The re-named Mental Capacity Bill was introduced to Parliament on Seventeenth of June 2004 and received Royal Assent on Seventh of April 2005, and it became law. The Mental Capacity Act received Royal Assent on Seventh of April 2005, and is likely to be implemented in 2007. The Act is an effort towards providing protection and liberty to the person to handle and conduct his or her affairs after he or she loses the mental capacity. The Act has supported people
Tuesday, February 4, 2020
Ukraine joining the EU Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words
Ukraine joining the EU - Essay Example Although the European Union has always considered Ukraine as a partner based on its principle of the European Neighborhood Policy (ENP), many western countries currently support the establishment of closer ties with Ukraine going beyond co-operation to gradual political and economic corporation and eventual integration of Ukraine into both the European Union and the NATO umbrella (Umland, 2011, 36). On the other hand, the Russia has always opposed the idea of Ukraine joining the European Union arguing that such moves would be incompatible with the Russiaââ¬â¢s national interests as well as the good relations between Russia and Ukraine as former members of the Soviet Union. This is particularly in view of the fact that the Ukrainian population is made up of more than 20% ethnic Russians and Russia is fears losing this population in the event that Ukraine joins EU. This paper critically analyzes the current issue of Ukraine joining the European Union with particular focus to the background of the issue, current developments, different viewpoints and the major obstacles that have prevented the integration. Ukraine became an independent state in 1991 following the collapse and dissolution of the Soviet Union. The newly independent state was premised on three important goals namely, self determination, free market economy and democracy. However, the Ukraine together with Belarus and Russia soon formed a regional economic integration block that was named the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The organization particularly sought to improve the economy of the former members of the Soviet Union by ensuring common trade policies and customs between the member states (Oudenaren, 2004, 277). Prior to the collapse of the former Soviet Union, Ukraine had a stronger economy in comparison to most regions of the Soviet Union. However, the country experiences serious economic problems between 1991 and 1999, resulting in the loss of up to
Sunday, January 26, 2020
The Role Of Sunnah In Islamic Jurisprudence Theology Religion Essay
The Role Of Sunnah In Islamic Jurisprudence Theology Religion Essay Literally, Sunnah means a clear path or a beaten track but it has also been used to imply normative practice, or an established course of conduct. It may be a good example or a bad, and it may be set by an individual, a sect or a community. In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Arabs used the word Sunnah in reference to the ancient and continuous practice of the community which they inherited from their forefathers. The Sunnah, according to the scholars of hadeeths, is everything that has been related from the Messenger (SAW), of his statements, actions, tacit approvals, personality, physical description, or biography.à It does not matter whether the information being related refers to something before the beginning of his prophetic mission, or after it. The statements of the Prophet include everything the Prophet said for various reasons on different occasions. The actions of the Prophet include everything that the Prophet did that was related to us by his Companions.à This includes how he made ablutions, how he performed his prayers, and how he made the Hajj pilgrimage. The tacit approvals of the Prophet includes everything that his Companions said or did that he either showed his favor towards or at least did not object to.à Anything that had the tacit approval of the Prophet is as valid as anything that he said or did himself. An adequate answer to the question as to whether the Sunnah is a mere supplement to the Quran or a source in its own right necessitates an elaboration of the relationship of the Sunnah to the Quran is tried in the following paragraphs: The Holy Quran is the foundation of Islamic Law.à It is the miraculous speech of Allah that was revealed to the Messenger, may the mercy and blessings of Allah be upon him, by way of the angel Gabriel.à It has been transmitted to us with so many chains of authority that its historical authenticity is unquestionable.à It is written down in its own volume, and its recitation is a form of worship. As for the Sunnah, it is everything besides the Holy Quran that came from Allahs Messenger.à It explains and provides details for the laws found in the Holy Quran.à It also provides examples of the practical application of these laws.à It is also either direct revelation from Allah, or decisions of the Messenger that were then confirmed by revelation.à Therefore, the source of all the Sunnah is revelation. The Holy Quran takes precedence over the Sunnah in two ways.à For one thing, the Holy Quran consists of the exact words of Allah, miraculous in nature, down to the last verse.à The Sunnah, however, is not necessarily the exact words of Allah, but rather their meanings as explained by the Holy Prophet (SAW). The Position of the Sunnah in Islamic Law During the Messengers lifetime the Holy Quran and Sunnah were the only sources of Islamic Law. The Holy Quran provides the general injunctions that formed the basis of the Law, without going into all the details and secondary legislation, with the exception of a few injunctions that are established along with the general principles.à These injunctions are not subject to change over time or with the changing circumstances of the people.à The Holy Quran, likewise, comes with the tenets of belief, sets down acts of worship, mentions the stories of the nations of old, and provides moral guidelines. The Sunnah comes in agreement with the Holy Quran.à It explains the meanings of what is unclear in the text, provides details for what is depicted in general terms, specifies what is general, and explains its injunctions and objectives.à The Sunnah also comes with injunctions that are not provided by the Holy Quran, but these are always in harmony with its principles, and they always advance the objectives that are outlined in the Holy Quran. The Sunnah is a practical expression of what is in the Holy Quran.à This expression takes many forms.à Sometimes, it comes as an action performed by the Messenger.à At other times, it is a statement that he made in response to something.à Sometimes, it takes the form of a statement or action of one of the Companions that he neither prevented nor objected to.à On the contrary, he remained silent about it or expressed his approval for it. The Sunnah explains and clarifies the Holy Quran in many ways.à It explains how to perform the acts of worship and carry out the laws that are mentioned in the Holy Quran.à Allah commands the believers to pray without mentioning the times that the prayers had to be performed or the manner of performing them.à The Messenger clarified this through his own prayers and by teaching the Muslims how to pray.à He said: Pray as you have seen me praying. Allah makes the Hajj pilgrimage obligatory without explaining its rites.à Allahs Messenger explains this by saying: Take the rites of Hajj from me. Allah makes the Zakat obligatory without mentioning what types of wealth and produce it is to be levied against.à Allah also does not mention the minimum amount of wealth that makes the tax obligatory.à The Sunnah, though, makes all this clear. The Sunnah specifies general statements found in the Holy Quran.à Allah says: Allah commands you regarding your children: to the male, a portion equal to that of two femalesà ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã ¦ (Holy Quran 4:11) This wording is general, applying to every family and making every child an inheritor of his or her parents.à The Sunnah makes this ruling more specific by excluding the children of Prophets.à Allahs Messenger (SAW) said: We Prophets leave behind no inheritance.à Whatever we leave behind is charity. The Sunnah qualifies unqualified statements in the Holy Quran.à Allah says: à ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã ¦and you find no water, then perform tayammum (dry ablution) with clean earth and rub therewith your faces and handsà ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã ¦ (Holy Quran 5:6) The verse does not mention the extent of the hand, leaving the question of whether one should rub the hands up to the wrist or the forearm.à The Sunnah makes this clear by showing that it is to the wrist, because this is what Allahs Messenger did when he performed dry ablution. The Sunnah also comes emphasizing what is in the Holy Quran or providing secondary legislation for a law stated therein.à This includes all the hadeeths that indicate that Prayer, the Zakat, fasting, and the Hajj pilgrimage are obligatory. An example of where the Sunnah provides subsidiary legislation for an injunction found in the Holy Quran is the ruling found in the Sunnah that it is forbidden to sell fruit before it begins to ripen.à The basis for this law is the statement of the Holy Quran: Do not consume your property amongst you unjustly, except it is a trade among you by mutual consent. The Sunnah contains rulings that are not mentioned in the Holy Quran and that do not come as clarifications for something mentioned in the Holy Quran.à An example of this is the prohibition of eating donkey flesh and the flesh of predatory beasts.à Another example of this is the prohibition of marrying a woman and her aunt at the same time.à These and other rulings provided by the Sunnah must be adhered to. The Obligation of Adhering to the Sunnah A requirement of believing in Prophet-hood is to accept as true everything that Allahs Messenger (SAW) said.à Allah chose His Messengers (SAW) from among His worshippers to convey His Law to humanity.à Allah says: à ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã ¦Allah knows best with whom to place His Messageà ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã ¦ (Holy Quran 6:124) Allah also says: à ¢Ã¢â ¬Ã ¦Are the Messengers charged with anything but to convey the clear Message? (Holy Quran 16:35) The Messenger is protected from error in all of his actions.à Allah has protected his tongue from uttering anything but the truth.à Allah has protected his limbs from doing anything but what is right. Allah has safeguarded him from showing approval for anything contrary to Islamic Law.à In conclusion, it may be said that both sides are essentially in agreement on the authority of Sunnah as a source of law and its principal role in relationship to the Quran. They both acknowledge that the Sunnah contains legislation which is not found in the Holy Quran. The difference between them seems to be one of interpretation rather than substance. The Quranic ayat on the duty of obedience to the Holy Prophet (SAW), and those which assign to him the role of the interpreter of the Quran, are open to variant interpretations. These passages have been quoted in support of both the views, that the Sunnah is supplementary to the Quran, and that it is an independent source. The point which is basic to both these views is the authority of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and the duty of adherence to his Sunnah. In the meantime, both sides acknowledge the fact that the Sunnah contains legislation which is additional to the Quran. When this is recognized, the rest of the debate becomes largely redundant. He (SAW) is the most beautifully complete of Allahs Creations.à This is clear from how Allah describes him in the following verses of Holy Quran: By the star when it sets.à Your companion has neither gone astray nor has he erred.à Nor does he speak of his own desire.à It is only revelation that has been revealed. (Holy Quran 53:1-4) QUESTION: Kamali asserts that The essential unity of Shariaah lies in the degree of harmony that is achieved between revelation and reason. Ijtihad is the principal instrument of maintaining this harmony. Discuss how personal reasoning (Ijtihad) has helped to develop Islamic jurisprudence? ANSWER: 1. Introduction: Ijtihad played an important role in the development of Islamic legal theory. The aim of this essay is to discuss the concept of Ijtihad in the development of the Islamic legal theory. Thus it will not be out of place to give a brief introduction of the concept of Ijtihad. 2. Ijtihad: The Arabic word Ijtihad is derived from the Juhud which means expending of maximum effort in the performance of an act. In Islamic jurisprudence Ijtihad means the effort made by the Mujtahid in seeking knowledge of the Ahkam (Rules) of the Shariaah through interpretation. (Nyazyee, Ch. 14: P. 263). This definition implies the following: That the Mujtahid should expend the maximum effort, that is, he should work to the limits of his ability so much so that he realize his inability to go any further. That, the person expending the effort should be a Mujtahid. An effort expended by non-Mujtahid is of no consequence, because he is not qualified to do so. The effort should be directed towards the discovery of the Rules of the Shariaah that pertain to the conduct. The method of discovery of the Rules should be through interpretation of the texts with the help of other sources. This excludes the memorization of such Rules from the books of Fiqh or their identification by the Mufti. Thus, the activity of the Faqih and the Mufti cannot be called Ijtihad. 3. The Three Modes of Ijtihad: The Jurists in general practice three types or modes of Ijtihad. In reality, the activity of the jurist cannot be split up into separate modes. Ijtihad is single seamless process, but for simplification and ease of understanding this activity is divided into three types as follows; In the first mode, the Jurist stay as close to the text as he can. He focuses on the literal meaning of the texts, that is, he follows the plain meaning Rule. When the first mode of literal construction is exhausted by the Jurists, he turns to syllogism, which is Qiyas. This mode is confined to strict types of analogy. These are called Qiyas Al-Mana and Qiyas Al.illah. The second mode of Ijtihad is confine to the extension of the law from individual texts, while in the third mode the reliance is on all the texts considered collectively. This means legal reasoning is undertaken more in the line with the spirit of the law and its purposes rather than the confines of the individual texts. 4. Role of Ijtihad in the development of Islamic legal theory. Early notion of Islamic legal theory and the concept of Ijtihad: At the time of the Holy Prophet (SAW) the only source of the Shariaah was revelation. That revelation had two types, one was the direct speech of Allah, namely the Holy Quran, and the other was indirect speech of Allah which the Holy Prophet (SAW) expressed in his own words, that is termed as Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW). The Holy Quran by nature is implicit. It does not provide details of each and every individual case, rather it describes general principles, examples etc. the Holy Prophet (SAW) used to explain and implement those principles and general rules in individual cases, that is Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW), in that sense the Sunnah is the explanation of the Holy Quran, though as it is mentioned earlier that explanation was also directed by the God. Although as it is mentioned earlier that the only source of law at that time was revelation, but some time the Holy Prophet (SAW) practiced Ijtihad in its narrow sense in the absence of reveled rule(s) as the Holy Prophet (SAW) said, when I do not receive a revelation I adjudicate among you on the basis of my opinion (Abu Dawud, 1984:1017). However, the difference of that Ijtihad with ordinary Ijtihad bil ray is that whenever, He (SAW) mistook, a verse would be revealed in order to inform him the correct decision. For instance, once the Holy Prophet (SAW) was asked by a woman about the rule of dhihar. The Holy Prophet (SAW) answered her I dont think that the rule is different from that of divorce. Then Allah revealed verses regarding the hukum of dhihar, which was not similar to divorce and then the hukum of dhihar had been corrected. The companion of the prophet used to do Ijtihad at that time also. When the Prophet was not available or when the Prophet sent them to somewhere, they use to do Ijtihad in the absence of explicit Quranic verse or Sunnah of the Prophet. They use to interpret the verses of the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet as well as in cases of completely new issues they use to do Ijtihad on the basis of the principles of Shariaah. The advantage of them was if they mistook they could correct themselves by asking the Prophet or Allah would revealed the correct rule(s). Therefore, Shariaah was very much based on the revelation at that time, i.e. either Allah would reveal the hukum of a certain masala or He would approve the decision(s) of the Prophet and his companions or He would disapproved and correct their decision(s). Hence, despite the fact that the practice of Ijtihad was started from that time, but it did not get the status of a source of Islamic legal theory then. Development of Islamic legal theory and the concept of Ijtihad: After the death of the Holy Prophet (SAW), the gate of revelation has been closed for ever. Therefore, in order to deal with new problems, the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) used to depend on the Ijtihad. However, it did not substitute the Holy Quran and Sunna at all, rather whenever they faced a new phenomenon regarding which they did not know any Quranic verse or Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW), they used to ask the other companions whether they knew any Hadith of the Holy Prophet (SAW) concerning that. They used to do Ijtihad in the absence of the revealed rule and whenever they found any Hadith regarding that case they use to abandon their Ijtihad and followed that Hadith. Because of the quick expansion of the Muslim world in first century, a huge number of people embraced Islam. A number of the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) migrated to different places in order to teach the new Muslims the science of Islam. People gathered around them to learn Islam. Through their teaching they created groups of scholars. Those groups were the producers of the different schools of thought. Two distinctive trends of thought emerged at that time, namely Ahl al-Ray and Ahl al-Hadith. The trend of Ahl al-ray can be traced back to the second caliph Hazrat Umar (RA) and a renowned companion Hazrat Abdullah ibn Masud (RA), whereas the trend of Ahl al-Hadith can be traced back from two renowned companions and scholars Hazrat Zaid Bin Thabit and Hazrat Abdullah Bin Umar (RA) (Abdur Rahim,2003:55). Ahl al-ray are those who depend on personal opinion (Ijtihad bil ray) in order to solve the problems and analyze the Ahkam of Shariaah and extract the major causes of those in order to draw out those to new phenomenas. Ahl al-Hadiths are those who depend on only authentic evidences. There strategy is to express exactly what is in the authentic narrations. They do not involve in causation of the Ahkam of Shariaah and extend those to new phenomenas. Nevertheless, the more the Muslims faced new problems the more the former trend became prominent, because of their wide practice of Ijtihad they could solve the new phenomenas better than Ahl al-Hadith School of thought. However, Ahl al-Hadith school of thought did not completely deny or overlook the concept of Ijtihad. Ijtihad also played a big role in the development of that school of thought. However, their concept of Ijtihad was narrower than that of Ahl al-Ray as discussed in the following section of the essay. Hence, it could be said that by the end of first century, Ijtihad became an important source of Islamic jurisprudence through the practice of it by the companions of the Holy Prophet (SAW) and their followers, although there were difference of opinion among them about the definition, scope and way of practice of it. Institutionalization of Islamic legal theory and the role of Ijtihad in it: The last companion of the Holy Prophet (SAW) died in the end of the first hijra. Around that time the process of institutionalization and compilation of Islamic jurisprudence started. The notion of Madhhad (School of thought) emerged at that time in different places. Although there were countless Madhhabs, but, apart from four Madhhabs others are not existed now a day.à We will discuss here the development of those four Madhhabs and the concept of Ijtihad in those. Hanafi school of thought: Hanafi school of thought is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Abu Hanifa. The Usul of Imam Abu Hanifa as he describes, is as follow: If I find any hukum in the Holy Quran, I confined myself with that. If I do not find that there, I accept Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW) which has come to me through authentic narrators. When I do not find that in the Holy Quran and in the Sunnah, I follow the opinion of the companions meaning their general consensuses. In case of their disagreement with each other I accept or abandon which ever I want, but I do not prefer others opinion over theirs. In case of the opinion of others, I have the right of Ijtihad as well as they have. The Maliki School of thought: The Maliki Madhhad is based on the jurisprudence of Imam Malik (93-179 A.H.). The method of his jurisprudence which is the method of Maliki Madhhad as well is that, in order to find out the hukum of a certain issue he first used to look in the Holy Quran, if it is not available in the Holy Quran then he used to look it in the Sunnah of the Holy Prophet (SAW). Similarly if the Quran describes the principle or indirect hukum of the issue he also used to search the Sunnah in order to find out the details of that. He used to consider the practice of Ahl-Medina as Mutawatir Hadith. If he did not find the solution in the Holy Quran or in Hadith he would refer to the general consensus of the companions who were known as faqih, if there were no general consensus regarding that matter then he would follow the individual opinions of the companions or would do Qiyas. If it was an abstract matter where there is no room for Ijtihad bil ray then he would follow the op inion of a companion, else he would prefer Ijtihad bil ray. Al-Shafi School of thought: Imam Al-Shafi emerged during the period of the compilation of the above mentioned two school of thoughts jurisprudence. He is credited as the inventor of Usul al Fiqh. However, Kamali argues that the Usul al-Fiqh was existed before but until the time of Al-Shafi it was not in a form of science. Imam Al-Shafi authored a book regarding the principles and rules of jurisprudence namely Al-Risalah, which is considered as the first book on Usul al-Fiqh (Kamali, 1991:3, 4). The motivations which prompted Al-Shafi to introduce the usul al-Fiqh are some inconsistencies which he observed in the discourses of his predecessors. He mentioned those in the beginning of his book kitabul Umm. It is appear from the reform activity of Al-Shafi that the objective of that was to make the Ijtihad systematic and to demolish the tendency of unconditional imitation of the predecessors Fatwas and hence to reopen and widen the scope of Ijtihad. Although, he excluded Ray from the category of Ijtihad, especially he was critical about Istihsan, and emphasized more on qias but he made the point clear that he is against the following of ones personal whim and amounts to unjustified legislations. Conclusion: In conclusion, it can be argued that Ijtihad played an important role in the development of Islamic legal theory. It appears from the essay that some of the school of thought emerged as a reaction against Taqlid or blind imitation of predecessors and the objective of them was to reopen and widen the gate of Ijtihad. QUESTION: In Islamic legal theory the law preceded society and is considered to be eternal as Allah. Explain, how todays states, with elected governments and independent judiciaries apply these rules of law. ANSWER. Introduction: The Holy Quran is a complete code for mankind and provides guidance for man in all walks of his life. It has its own concepts of ethics, politics, economics and sociology. It is an irony of fate that, now a days the demand for the enforcement of the Islamic law has come to surrounded by such a thick mist of misgivings that a mere reference to it raises a storm of criticism not only in non Islamic but even in Islamic countries also. Thus for instance, the questions are asked: Can a centuries old legal system be adequate to fulfill the requirements of our modern state and society. To be sure, these questions are not the outcome of any antagonism towards Islam but mostly of sheer ignorance which must quite naturally breed suspicion. The first task, therefore, is to explain to people the meaning and applications of Islamic Law, Its objectives, its Spirit, its Structure and its categorical and unchangeable injunctions along with the reasons of their permanence. They should also be informed of the dynamic element of Islamic Law and how it guarantees the fulfillment of ever increasing needs of the progressive human society in every age. Islamic Law: The establishment of political authority which may enforce Islamic Law requires a Constitutional Law and Shariaah clearly laid down its fundamentals. The Shariaah has provided answers to the following basic questions of Constitutional Law. What is the basic theory of the state? What is the source of the authority of its legislation? What are the guiding principles of state policy? What are the qualifications of the ruler of an Islamic State? What are the objectives of an Islamic state? In whom does the sovereignty reside and what are the different organs of the state? What is the mode of distribution of power between different organs of the state, viz.: Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary? What are the conditions of Citizenship? What are the rights and duties of Muslim Citizens and what are the rights of non Muslim citizen? The guidance which the Shariaah has provided in respect to these questions constitutes the Constitution of Islam. Besides laying down the fundamentals of Constitutional Law, the Shariaah has also enunciated the basic principles of Administrative Law. Beside that there are precedents in administrative practice established by Holy Prophet (SAW) and the first four rightly guided Caliphs of Islam (Khulfah-e-Rashidin). For instance, the Shariaah enumerates the sources of income permissible for an Islamic State and those which are prohibited. It also prescribes the avenues of the expenditure. It lays down rules of conduct for Police, the Judiciary and Administrative machinery. Elected Governments and Islamic Law: The Holy Quran and Holy Prophet (SAW) encourage Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with those who will be affected by that decision. The concept of consultation is known as SHURA in Islam. Shura is an Arabic word for consultation. Majlis al-Shura and a Parliament Many traditional Sunni Islamic Jurists agree that to be in keeping with Islam, a government should have some form of council of consultation or Majlis al Shura, although it must recognize that sovereignty belongs to ALLAH ALMIGHTY and not the people. Jurists have written that members of the Majlis should satisfy following three conditions: They must be just, They have enough knowledge Islamic Injunctions to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and They have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph. Many contemporary Muslims have compared the concept of Shura to the principles of western parliamentary democracy. For example: What is the Shura principle in Islam? It is predicated on three basic precepts. First, that all persons in any given society are equal in human and civil rights. Second, those public issues are best decided by majority view. And third, that the three other principles of justice, equality and human dignity, which constitute Islams moral core, are best realized, in personal as well as public life, under Shura governance. Judiciary and Islamic Laws: Islam is the religion that Allah wants for mankind from the time that He sent Holy Prophet (SAW) shows great concern for the judicial system and those appointed to carry out its responsibilities. Islam prescribes for it many legal injunctions. How else could it be, when Islam is the religion of mercy, equality, and justice? It is the religion that comes to free people from worshipping Creation and bring them to the worship of Allah. It is the religion that comes to remove people from oppression and iniquity and bring them to the highest degree of justice and freedom. Allahs Messenger (SAW) was the greatest of judges. He used to act in the capacity of judge in the city of Medina, which was the first Islamic state. He used to appoint people to be judges in other cities In the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the head of state continued to be the one to appoint judges, govern their affairs, protect their independence, and keep the governors and political appointees and even the Caliphs subject to the judges verdicts. Hazrat Umar bin al-Khattà ¢b (R.A.), the second Caliph, was the first person to make the judge an independent entity, distinct from the Caliph and the governors. So it was Islam that not only called for independent Judiciary but also the first religion and state that actually setup the independent Judiciary. Conclusion: The Islamic Law, the Law which Holy Prophet (SAW) delivered unto mankind for all times to come, this Law admits of no difference between man and man except in faith and religion. Those religious and social systems and political and cultural ideologies which differentiate between men on grounds of Race, Country or colour, can never become universal creeds or world ideologies for the simple reason that one belonging to a certain race cannot get transformed into another race, one born in certain country cannot tear asunder his entity from that place, nor can the whole world condense into one country, and the colour of negro, a Chinese and a white man cannot be changed. Such ideologies and social systems must remain conned to one race, community, or country. They are bound to be narrow, limited and nationalistic and cannot become universal. Islam, on the other hand, is universal ideology. Any person who declares belief in LA ILAHA ILLALLAH MUAMMAD-UR-RASULLULLAH enters the pale of Islam and entitles himself to the same rights as those of other Muslims. Islam makes no discrimination on the basis of race, country, colour, language, or the like. Its appeal is to the entire humanity and it admits of no narrow minded discriminations. This law is eternal. It is not based on the customs or traditions of any particulars people and is not meant for any particular period of human history. It is based on the same principles of the nature on which man has been created. And as that nature remains the same in all periods and under all circumstances, the law based on it unalloyed principles should also be applicable to every period and under all circumstances. And this universal and eternal religion is Islam.
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